A Comparison of the Roman and Mongol Empires

A Comparison of the Roman and Mongol Empires Contents Introduction The Roman Empire Julius Caesar Governance Religion Trade and Warfare The Mongols Empire Genghis Khan Governance Religion Warfare Mughal Empire Akbar the Emperor Governance Religion and Culture Common Characteristics of the Empires and Emperors Born to Wealthy, Political, and/or Kingship Continue from the foundation Governance Strength for source of power Warfare as a means of expansion Relevant lessons Bibliography Introduction ‘One of the lessons of history is that even the deepest crises can be moments of opportunity. They bring ideas from the margins into the mainstream’ (Mulgan, 2009). Empires have come and gone away but the lessons they brought to the world remain in the minds of the people and documented in the books of world history. The word empire has a very broad definition and some often misinterpret the word. To many it means dictatorship, war among civilisations, exploiting the poor, high profile palaces and Kings and emperors living in comfort ruling over a growing conquest. Although some part of all this is true all of this is history in the world we live in today all that is left is lessons that they brought and the teachings that we still abide by even to this day; history brings more to the table than most people come to think because the governance structures used today, religions, cultures and arts are all brought by the historical world that is passed. In this paper, we are going to discuss the brief history of three empires in history that came in different eras looking at their history, their similarities and the lessons that can be drawn from them. The focus will be mainly cast on governance and city planning but also taking a look at how religion and culture influenced governance and to what extent. How artistry also played a part in planning the cities of the past and how all of these play a major role in our cities today. The empires that are going to be discussed include: The Roman Empire, The Mongols Empire and the Mughal Empire. The structure of the paper is discussing the brief history of the above-mentioned empires individually then from there we look at the common characteristics that exist in each empire that made them successful, this paper will further discuss the differences, the lessons that we can take from history that are still relevant today in terms of governance and city planning. The Roman Empire Some scholars argue that the Roman Empire existed even during the ‘Republic’ although to some extent this is true it was just never visible. It all started in Rome a city-state that is located 25 kilometres from the mouth of the Tiber River. It consisted of high advanced culture and strong army which made it a powerful civilisation (Edward, 1979). Figure 1: Roman Empire (Anon, 2008) Julius Caesar Julius is seen as the engineer of the Empire, he was born to a patrician family in 100 B.C.E to a chief in the senate house of the â€Å"Roman Republic†. He rose in popularity in Rome. Popular with the troops and the people because of his conquest of Gaul; A brilliant military commander. He was murdered on the 15th of March 44 B.C.E; stabbed 23 times by the senate this triggered a civil war which saw Augustus take over the Republic and turning it into an Empire (Bladen, 2011). Governance Rome transitioned from a Monarchy to a Republic then finally to an Empire. This gave a clear distinction between the Proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the rich and the poor, women and men. Only a group of people were allowed to be citizens during the Roman Empire. It was ruled over by one individual who was given the divine power due to power, wealth or any other valuable contributor. The Empire spread all over the Mediterranean Sea as shown above by the picture, ruled by peace there was almost no warfare. This dictatorship system continued for the rest of the Empire (Garnsey Saller, 2014) Religion The Romans and conquered personnel brought many cults to the Empire; they worshiped in churches and their homes, they made sacrifices and held festivals in their honour. Rituals were the main threshold of Roman Religion. Rome was the birth of early Christianity (Garnsey Saller, 2014). Trade and Warfare With the emergence of trade routes and sea transport at the heart of Rome; trade and warfare where the big driving factors to the growth of empire. Winning wars and conquering new territories gave Rome more resources; they acquired new skills from captives, and more slaves that increased the working force (Hopkins, 1980). The Mongols Empire Boasting at twice the land area of the Roman Empire; The Mongols have the largest land empire in world history which stretched long and wide from Central Asia to Central Europe, over to the Sea Of Japan then to Siberia and Indian subcontinents and lastly to Arabia (Khan, 1984). It existed from 1206 to 1368. The Mongols were horse men which enabled them to grow their empire wider and further quicker. The acquiring of horses and other livestock enabled then to greatly enhance their military strength (Rachewiltz, 2013). Figure 2: Mongol Empire (Anon, 2010) Genghis Khan Born to a politically strong family during the year 1161. Brilliant organizer and military mastermind he built the foundation of the Mongols Empire. He died on the 18th of August 1227 which triggered unrest to his grandsons that saw it relevant to grow what he started in memory of his life (Weatherford, 2004). Governance The law was drawn up by Genghis Khan himself with a vital point of instating the ‘Death Penalty’ which made the civilisation to be more peaceful. It was safe and well run because anyone who goes against the rules set out would endure a hard penalty (Rachewiltz, 2013). The Non-democratic parliament central assembly was held at the ‘Kurutai’ where members where the bureaucratic members of the civilisation and the chief was the only one allowed to directly communicate with the Emperor to discuss political and civil related information This dictatorship system continued for the rest of the Empire. Trade routes and postal systems were invented during this time (May, 2012). Religion Although the Emperor allowed for religious freedom the transition of religious systems went from Buddhism to Christianity then finally to Islam. Although citizens were allowed to follow which ever religion they chose (Mumford, 1946). Warfare They were generally horsemen which gave them an advantage over they foot soldiered opponents; they travelled in 10s as they attacked (Saunders, 1971). Figure 3: Mongol Army (Anon, 2012) Mughal Empire In 1494 an 11 year old boy by the name of Babur inherited a Kingdom from his father, the elders thought it would better suit the interest of the empire to take away the kingdom from the boy and assume power driving him away from the land, but little did they know that the boy possessed the power to come back and rule over his father’s empire. After being banished he built an army so strong it could withhold any opposition. The conventional beginning of the empire begins when the army of Babur assumed victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the very first battle of Panipat in 1526. He was a brilliant general and a mastermind in war this is clearly shown by his conquest of an army that had 100000 troops with his army of just merely 12000. He laid the main foundation of the Empire leaving his children to take the throne after he died (Schimmel, 2004). Figure 4: Mughal Empire (Anon, 2013) Akbar the Emperor Babur’s son was the driving force in the small decline of the empire that was growing ever small because of his lack of brilliance in the war field. Akbar on the other grew the Empire through his knowledge and understanding of humans (Sharma, 1999). After conquering his opponents Akbar took the opportunity of growing the culture of his Empire by incorporating the cultures into his Empire. Governance He ruled as the divine ruler with the help from his Bureaucratic officials which formed part of a senate with the chief of the being the one that has direct communication to the Emperor. He approached the position with some element of ease. This dictatorship system continued for the rest of the Empire (Schimmel, 2004). Religion and Culture The Empire was well rounded with different cultures and religions due to the brilliance of Akbar with his ability to blend cultures, He allowed for freedom of Religion this meant that anyone in the empire could worship their own God he’s tolerance was seen when he married women from all different types religions and allowed them to practice in the palace (Schimmel, 2004). The official Religion in the Mughal Empire was Islam but the blending created a host of different cultures new ideas on education, art, politics and language (Sharma, 1999). Common Characteristics of the Empires and Emperors Born to Wealthy, Political, and/or Kingship The most remembered people that gave a foundation to the respective empires were all born to highly recognized families. First we look at Julius Caesar who was born to a patrician family with the father part of the higher order of society which gave him the platform to be greater than his father that is why he continued on to lay a foundation for the Roman Empire (Bladen, 2011). Genghis Khan was born to a political and wealthy family which gave him the power and popularity to go on and exploit this side and take charge to bringing the Mongol Empire (May, 2012). Babur was a son of a king that is why he was presented with the opportunity to rule, although his elders took it away he’s nature to rule was fulfilled when he conquered Ibrahim Lodi and took over (Sharma, 1999). Continue from the foundation The descendants of the foundation kings took over the Empires and grew them to greater heights. The children and grand-children grew the Empires to greater Heights. Augustus took Rome to another level of empire and so did the emperors that followed him (Bunson, 1994). Ãâ€"gedei Khan was assigned by Genghis Khan to be his successor this proved crucial to the growth of the empire (Rachewiltz, 2013). Akbar the grandson of Babur grew the empire to become the largest land empire in history (Sharma, 1999). Governance They all adopted governance structure according to what they thought would work for the current time, place and given resources. Strength for source of power The empires used the resources given to achieve what they managed to achieve. Looking at the Mongols they used horses to expand their territory because they could cover more land quicker and faster and it gave them an advantage over opponents at war. Warfare as a means of expansion They fought to keep their empires and they fought to gather more land and power which was common to all the above empires as a means of expanding their territory Relevant lessons Eventually the needs of the people are much greater than the needs of those in power, by addressing the needs of the people then you will be good in terms of popularity and your position in power will be solidified. This is shown by the Akbar in the Mughal he tolerated the conquered to continue their religion even after he’s captured them (Schimmel, 2004). Freedom of religion gives power to the ruling class because it keeps the dwellers happy. Well assembled civilisations in terms of governance are safe and well run because everyone is happy because they can do whatever they want but abiding by the given rules. The death Penalty by Genghis Khan was a relevant governance structure. This reduces high level crimes like murder so this is a good lesson (May, 2012). How such a small group of Mongols Empire managed to conquered such a vast piece of land was because they were contempt in incorporating they groups that they win over into their empire and this meant that they didnâ€⠄¢t have some kind of barrier that doesn’t allow for outsiders so this meant cultures were well engineered to meet the cultural dynamic unlike most cultures that don’t allow other cultures to enter. City building was influenced by arts and culture that was in the empire and the desired taste of the Emperor because he has the final say on the building of the city. Conclusion Each Empire has its own significant characteristics but at some point they overlap to some extent which means that they have some strong similarities as to how their Empires began which was due to the power hungry political children in an attempt to by-pass their parent’s success. How they handle their conquered territories is also different while some choose to incorporate cultures some just choose to instate their own into the lives of the captives. We can draw a lot from history although we refuse to take the lessons and incorporate them because we think we know better and that history is irrelevant although it plays a vital role in our lives now and it will continue to influence our ideas even in times to come Bibliography Anon, 2008. Roman Empire. [Online] Available at: http://www.crystalinks.com/romanempire.html [Accessed 20 March 2015]. Anon, 2010. Colonialism in India and China. [Online] Available at: http://colonialism-india-china.weebly.com/mongol-empire.html [Accessed 21 March 2015]. Anon, 2012. Badass. [Online] Available at: http://badassoftheweek.com/index.cgi?id=84324331289 [Accessed 22 March 2015]. Anon, 2013. Mr. G @ AHS. [Online] Available at: https://sites.google.com/site/mrgahs/home/period-4-global-interactions-1450-ce-to-1750-ce/mughal-empire [Accessed 22 March 2015]. Bladen, V., 2011. Julius Caesar. Australia: Insight Publications. Bunson, M., 1994. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts on File. Edmondson, J.C., 1989. Mining in the Later Roman Empire and beyond: Continuity or Disruption? The Journal of Roman Studies, 79(1), pp.84-102. Edward, 1979. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Garnsey, P. Saller, R., 2014. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Hall, P., 1998. Cities in civilization: culture, innovation, and urban order. London: Phoenix. Hopkins, K., 1980. Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire. Journal Of Roman Studies, 70(1), pp.101-25. Khan, P., 1984. The Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chinghis Khan. Boston: Cheng and Tsui Company. May, T., 2012. The Mongol Conquests in World History. London: Reaktion Books. Mulgan, G., 2009. Ted. [Online] Available at: https://www.ted.com/talks/geoff_mulgan_post_crash_investing_in_a_better_world_1/transcript?language=en [Accessed 20 March 2015]. Mumford, L., 1946. The Culture of Cities. 5th ed. London: Martin Secker and Wraburg Limited. Rachewiltz, I.d., 2013. The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century. Asia: Brill. Saunders, J.J., 1971. The History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: Routledge. Schimmel, A., 2004. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture. London: Reaktion Books. Sharma, S.R., 1999. Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. Weatherford, J., 2004. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Crown Publishers.

On the Necessity of Rationalism

In the process of considering the various means of justification, a relativistic conception of reality assumes that the truth and hence the validity of a statement may only be assessed in relation to the perspective of the discipline which holds a particular belief. In this sense, truth is dependent upon the internal coherence of beliefs within a system of thought. In his The Last Word, Nagel claims that such is not the case. He argues that the truth and hence the validity of statements are dependent upon an unqualified notion of reason.He claims that the truth of a statement is independent upon any particular perspective. If such is the case, it follows that the truth of any statement is independent from the schema [truth schema] presented by any system of thought. In relation to scientific claims, it thereby follows that the truth of scientific claims ought to be assessed through the unqualified notion of reason as opposed to merely their internal coherence within the scientific co nception of reality [scientific framework].The aforementioned argument is based upon the critique of the intrinsic limits to subjectivist doubt since challenges to the independent validity of reason must themselves assume the independent validity of reason. Any explanation of reason deriving from outside the mind can itself be explained only from inside the mind, as having its own independent validity. In the case of scientific knowledge, he argues that it is mistaken to assume that the scientific discipline has freed itself from the limits of the Cartesian problem through the replacement of judgments about rules of practice from objective judgments.Nagel argues that if science will continually adhere to a subjectivistic and hence relativistic framework, the discipline will fail to provide an objective account of reality. He claims, â€Å"the general aim of such reasoning [scientific reasoning] is to make sense of the world in which we find ourselves and how it appears to us and ot hers† (81). If such is the case, it is necessary to conceive of the conception of the world which is not based upon an a priori conception of reality dependent upon a preconceived and limited conception of the word. According to Nagel, such an account is not provided by science.The reasons for this lies in the subjectivism of science (Nagel 84). Subjectivism within science [scientific methods] is apparent if one considers that the scientific â€Å"demand for order cannot itself be rationally justified nor does it correspond to a self-evident necessity† (Nagel 84). He notes that scientific subjectivism can only end if it adheres to rational means of knowledge acquisition. It is only through the defense of rationalism that an objectivist account of evidence is possible.Nagel further argues that the appeal of subjectivism arises out of a certain reductionist impulse in modern explanation as this reductionist impulse enables the explanation of things to hinge on their reduc tion to local and finite terms thereby ensuring subjectivist conclusions. Although this enables the assurance against rationalist explanations that refuse to make reason into something irrational or that conceive of reason as a capacity for grasping the universal and infinite principle, the reductionist explanation is in itself dependent on an irreducibly nonlocal and objective understanding of reason. Nagel argues that doubt about reason presupposes reason’s independent validity hence reason’s independent validity cannot be coherently doubted.He rightly argues that to object to reason on the grounds we cannot strictly explain it in naturalistic terms is to misunderstand the irreducible nature of the concept since reason cannot be so explained without losing its meaning or validity and that, as such, it is justified in a different way, by showing it to be necessary to intelligible thought and action. Science thereby must opt for a rationalistic as opposed to a subjecti vistic account of reality for it to maintain its value as a discipline.Work CitedNagel, Thomas. The Last Word. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.Essay Number TwoEdmund Gettier’s Counterargument Against thePlatonic Tripartite Account of Propositional KnowledgeThe Platonic tripartite definition of propositional and fallibilist knowledge found in the last section of the Theaetetus states that knowledge of P occurs when an epistemic agent S knows that P if and only if (1) P is true, (2) S believes that P, and (3) S is justified in believing that P (90). A well-known opposition to such an account of propositional knowledge questions the sufficiency of the aforementioned conditions.It is argued that although the aforementioned conditions are necessary in the definition of propositional knowledge such conditions are insufficient due to their failure to ensure S against conditions wherein knowledge of P occurs as a result of mere epistemic luck (Gettier 123). This critique is b est known as the Gettier type counter examples towards the tripartite definition of propositional knowledge mentioned above.A logical problem is posited by the Gettier type counter examples. This logical problem is evident in the lack of successful coordination between the truth of P and the reasons that justify S in holding P. Floridi notes that Gettier type counter examples arise â€Å"because the truth and the justification of P happen to be not only independent but also opaquely unrelated that they happen to fail to converge or agree on the same propositional content P†¦without S realizing it† (64). In order to understand this, it is important to lay down the main assumptions of Gettier’s counter argument that seeks to explicate the aforementioned logical problem.Gettier’s argument against the tripartite account of propositional knowledge, which involves the conception of knowledge as justified true belief arose as a result of the following claim: knowl edge [propositional knowledge] does not merely involve justified true belief. Such a claim is based upon the following assumptions. First, there are instances wherein the warrant is not a sufficient condition for a belief in P. This is evident if one considers that instances of belief and knowledge of P are in some respects epistemically different [other than in terms of truth] from belief of P without knowledge of P. Second, there are instances wherein warrant is fallible.This is due to the insufficiency of truth and justification as warrants for knowledge. The evidence of such, according to Gettier is apparent if one considers that it is possible for P to be false even if S believes that P possesses epistemically significant properties such that whenever a belief possesses such properties and is true the belief may thereby qualify as knowledge. Lastly, there is the closure of knowledge under obvious and known entailments. The last assumption argues that if S is justified in believ ing P and a deductively valid inference is drawn from P to another belief Q then S is justified in believing Q. This is a result of the entailment of Q from P.From what was stated above, it is possible to present the usual form of Gettier’s attack against the tripartite account of knowledge. Gettier’s counter argument is based upon the critique of warrant, fallibility, and closure. Note that combination of the three claims mentioned above leads to a contradiction. From what was mentioned above it follows that it is possible to believe in an obvious deductive consequence of P, which is Q, while in the process retaining the epistemically significant properties of the belief in P.If such is the case, it is possible to have a justified true belief of any property which has led S to have a belief in Q or any other type of belief which has Q’s epistemic characteristics. Note that this contradicts the assumed necessity that P and Q differ from each other since one qual ifies as knowledge [S believes and has knowledge of P] whereas Q merely qualifies as a belief [S believes but does not have knowledge of Q].Works CitedFloridi, L. â€Å"On the Logical Unsolvability of the Gettier Problem.† Synthese 142(2004): 61-79.Gettier, E. â€Å"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?† Analysis 23(1963): 121-23.Plato. Theaetetus. Trans. M.J. Levett. Indiana: Hackett Publishing Co., 1992.

The Hot House Book Review Essay - 712 Words

The Hot House Life Inside Leavenworth Prison The Hot House Life inside Leavenworth prison was writing in 1987-1989 by Peter Earley. Leavenworth has been one of the oldest and most dangerous maximum security facilities in the nation. The author introduces us with 6 prisoners and a couple of wardens. The book captures all the problems prisoners came across and experiences they had to go through. Carl Bowles an inmate for 23 consecutive years. He had a record as a sexual predator. Carl Bowles was known for forcing weaker inmates to satisfy his pleasures. Bowles was practically raised in a jail cell with all the prison rules and regulations; to him it was his house. He was first arrested when he was 12 years old. He had been convicted for†¦show more content†¦He soon started collecting all the news articles that had criminal cases worse than his crime. That gave post the courage to fight for his will and not give up on his hopes on getting release for parole. While he was in the prison he started a relationship within the prison with a secretary. He ended up getting married while in prison but once release divorced her. Dallas Scott was another inmate at Leavenworth; he was a family member of the Aryan brotherhood gang. He spent 30 of his 42 years behind bars after getting arrested for drug smuggling. Scott never gave up on his case and spent the majority of his time trying to get the criminal justice system to re-try his case. After getting many denial letters he was granted to retry his court case. He was later caught threatening a female through the phone telling her that she either gives him the drugs or her husband would die. Thomas Silverstein was another inmate which was isolated in a cage away from other prisoners. He was tried for bank robbery and manslaughter. While in prison he gets accused of killing someone which increased his sentence, which he had nothing to do with the murder. 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The Legacy Of Colonialism Essay - 1372 Words

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Although colonialism lasted for only a century (which is a relatively short period of time in history), it was so intense and altering that it impacted the continent in a lasting way. Thus, it is important to determine in what ways and in which domains was the impact the most profound. Well, most African states seem to struggle in two main arenas: politics and economy. Though, colonialism affected other aspects of the African life, like on the socialRead MorePost Colonialism Is Not A Referen ce Of Time Essay1237 Words   |  5 PagesPost colonialism is not a reference of time; rather it is the literary theory that encompasses the global interactions of humans after colonization and imperialist rule dominated the world. The ultimate definition is still in the wakes of developing, so there is no box this particular word can smoothly fit into. This is a literary theory; it is a lens to take in order to understand the truthfulness of all perspectives in a story. A baseline of post colonialism lies in the definition of both termsRead MoreColonialism740 Words   |  3 PagesPolitical legacy of colonialism in India A lot of countries were experienced of political legacy of colonialism. This essay will focus on concept colonialism and its reasons. This notion could be defined in different ways. Colonialism is a situation of some territory which ruled by another country. Colonialism is a political-economic phenomenon whereby various European nations explored, conquered, settled, and exploited large areas of the world. Colonialism developed from imperialism, which canRead MoreColonialism And Its Impact On Africa1206 Words   |  5 PagesColonialism is the establishment of the political and economic control of one state over another state. This establishment had one of the biggest impacts on Africa. This experience of colonialism began to take effect between the 1400s and 1800s. It started when the Europeans arrived to Africa and set up trading posts. In the late 1800s and early 1900s the increase of European power took over most of the continent. The legacy of the colonial experience will influe nce the history of the continent.Read MoreImapct of Colonialism on Africa889 Words   |  4 PagesIMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON AFRICA In this view of the circumstances that existed during history in regards to colonial Africa. I venture to examine how colonialism is viewed, introducing you to a variety of texts which expose you to different views and debates about what Africa may well have been like today, had the colonization never taken place. The African resistance to colonialism put another perspective on the colonization of Africa by the Europeans and the Western influence Africa faced.Read MoreLegacies of Kenya Essays1058 Words   |  5 Pagesdefeated by the Ottoman Arabs, who ultimately were overpowered by the growth of the British and Germans. This constant change of power in the area was due to competition in slave trade. However, like in the rest of Africa, the official start of colonialism in Kenya began with the 1884/85 Berlin Conference. With the 1886 Anglo-German Agreement and agreements through the Berlin Conference, Britain established protectorate over Kenya. Kenya’s boundaries were delineated without the consultation the